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Cover of Guide to Pavement Technology Part 2: Pavement Structural Design
Guide to Pavement Technology Part 2: Pavement Structural Design
  • Publication no: AGPT02-25
  • ISBN: 978-1-922994-98-1
  • Published: 14 October 2025
  • Edition: 5.0
  • Superseded

Guide to Pavement Technology Part 2: Pavement Structural Design provides advice for the structural design of sealed road pavements.provides advice for the structural design of sealed road pavements.

The target audience for the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology includes all those involved with the management of roads, including industry and students seeking to learn more about the fundamental concepts, principles, issues and procedures associated with pavement technology.

The advice contained in this Guide has been generally developed from the approaches followed by the Austroads member agencies. However, as it encompasses the wide range of materials and conditions found in Australia and New Zealand, some parts are broadly based.

This Part covers the assessment of input parameters needed for design, outlines design methods for flexible and rigid pavements, and also provides guidance on the economic comparisons of alternative pavement designs.

View an interactive map showing the Weighted Mean Annual Pavement Temperature (WMAPT) in Appendix B.

Download the ZIP file containing the full Traffic Load Distribution (TLD) data for each of the sites listed in Table D.1 (Appendix D).

Watch the webinar recording

On Thursday 20 November 2025 Didier Bodin, Michael Moffatt and Andrew Papacostas presented the changes in this update at a live webinar.

Watch a recording of the webinar to learn more.

AustPADS

Austroads' pavement design software, AustPADS conducts advanced mechanistic analysis of the response-to-load of road pavements.

The AustPADS user interface and the underlying analysis engine APADS were developed by ARRB Group for Austroads.

The analysis engine is based upon a finite element method model and software developed by Dr Markus Oeser.

The primary users for AustPADS are Australia and New Zealand road managers, industry organisations and consultancies working with road agencies. Access may not be granted to other users.

If you are considering conducting training using AustPADS please contact austroads@austroads.gov.au and supply information about who is conducting the training, when and where the course will be held, when the software is likely to be accessed and how many participants you are expecting.

This 47 minute video provides an overview of AustPADS and includes design and analysis examples.

Edition 5.0 has been superseded. The latest edition is available here.

Edition 5.0 published October 2025

Edition 5.0 includes:

  • distinction made between lightly bound and heavily bound cemented materials
  • design procedure introduced for lightly bound cemented materials. New characterisation of post-cracking phase of heavily bound cemented materials
  • revisions to WIM data in Appendix E
  • numerous clarifications and revisions.

Edition 4.4 published April 2024  (PDF)

Edition 4.3 published November 2019 (PDF)

Edition 4.2 published October 2018

Edition 4.1 published September 2018

Edition 4.0 published December 2017

Edition 3.0 published February 2012

Edition 2.0 published February 2010

Edition 1.0 published May 2008

  • 1. Introduction
    • 1.1 Scope of the Guide and this Part
    • 1.2 Project scope and background data requirements for design
      • 1.2.1 Investigation and design proposal
  • 2. Pavement Design Systems
    • 2.1 General
    • 2.2 Common pavement types
      • 2.2.1 General
      • 2.2.2 Granular pavements with sprayed seal surfacings
      • 2.2.3 Cemented granular bases with sprayed seal surfacings
      • 2.2.4 Granular pavements with thin asphalt surfacings
      • 2.2.5 Asphalt over granular pavements
      • 2.2.6 Flexible composite, deep strength and full depth asphalt pavements
      • 2.2.7 Rigid pavements
    • 2.3 Overview of pavement design systems
      • 2.3.1 Input variables
      • 2.3.2 Selecting a trial pavement configuration
      • 2.3.3 Structural analysis
      • 2.3.4 Distress prediction
      • 2.3.5 Comparison of alternative designs
  • 3. Construction and Maintenance Considerations
    • 3.1 General
    • 3.2 Extent and type of drainage
      • 3.2.1 Purpose and details of drainage measures
      • 3.2.2 Drainage of pavement materials
      • 3.2.3 Use of a drainage blanket
      • 3.2.4 Permeable pavements on moisture-sensitive subgrades
      • 3.2.5 Full depth asphalt pavements on moisture-sensitive subgrades
      • 3.2.6 Treatment of stormwater run-off
    • 3.3 Use of boxed construction
    • 3.4 Availability of equipment
    • 3.5 Use of staged construction
    • 3.6 Use of stabilisation
    • 3.7 Pavement layering considerations
    • 3.8 Use of strain alleviating membrane interlayers
    • 3.9 Environmental and safety constraints
    • 3.10 Social considerations
    • 3.11 Construction under traffic
    • 3.12 Maintenance strategy
    • 3.13 Acceptable risk
    • 3.14 Improved subgrades
      • 3.14.1 Soft subgrades
      • 3.14.2 Improved layers under bound layers
    • 3.15 Surfacing type
      • 3.15.1 Sprayed seals
      • 3.15.2 Asphalt or concrete surfaces
      • 3.15.3 Open-graded asphalt
      • 3.15.4 Surfacings in tunnels
    • 3.16 Pavement widenings
  • 4. Environment
    • 4.1 General
    • 4.2 Moisture environment
      • 4.2.1 Equilibrium moisture content
    • 4.3 Temperature environment
  • 5. Subgrade Evaluation
    • 5.1 General
    • 5.2 Measures of subgrade support
    • 5.3 Factors to be considered in estimating subgrade support
      • 5.3.1 Subgrade variability
      • 5.3.2 Performance risk
      • 5.3.3 Sequence of earthworks construction
      • 5.3.4 Compaction moisture content used and field density achieved
      • 5.3.5 Moisture changes during service life
      • 5.3.6 Pavement cross-section and subsurface drainage
      • 5.3.7 Presence of weak layers below the design subgrade level
      • 5.3.8 Lime-stabilised subgrades
    • 5.4 Methods for determining subgrade design CBR value
    • 5.5 Field determination of subgrade CBR
      • 5.5.1 In situ CBR test
      • 5.5.2 Cone penetrometers
      • 5.5.3 Deflection testing
    • 5.6 Laboratory determination of subgrade CBR and elastic parameters
      • 5.6.1 Determination of density for laboratory testing
      • 5.6.2 Determination of moisture conditions for laboratory testing
    • 5.7 Adoption of presumptive CBR values
    • 5.8 Limiting subgrade strain criterion
  • 6. Pavement Materials
    • 6.1 General
    • 6.2 Unbound granular materials
      • 6.2.1 Introduction
      • 6.2.2 Factors influencing modulus and Poisson’s ratio
      • 6.2.3 Determination of modulus of unbound granular materials
      • 6.2.4 Permanent deformation
    • 6.3 Modified granular materials
    • 6.4 Cemented materials
      • 6.4.1 Introduction
      • 6.4.2 Factors affecting modulus of cemented materials
    • 6.5 Heavily bound cemented materials
      • 6.5.1 Introduction
      • 6.5.2 Determination of Design Modulus
      • 6.5.3 Determination of design flexural strength
      • 6.5.4 Factors affecting the fatigue life of heavily bound cemented materials
      • 6.5.5 Determining the in-service fatigue characteristics from laboratory fatigue measurements
      • 6.5.6 Determining the in-service fatigue characteristics from laboratory measured flexural strength and modulus
        6.5.7 Determining the in-service fatigue characteristics from presumptive flexural strength and modulus
    • 6.6 Lightly bound cemented materials
      • 6.6.1 Introduction
      • 6.6.2 Determination of design modulus
    • 6.7 Asphalt
      • 6.7.1 Introduction
      • 6.7.2 Factors affecting modulus of asphalt
      • 6.7.3 Definition of asphalt design modulus
      • 6.7.4 Determination of design modulus from direct measurement of flexural modulus
      • 6.7.5 Determination of design modulus from measurement of ITT modulus
      • 6.7.6 Design modulus from bitumen properties and mix volumetric properties
      • 6.7.7 Design modulus from published data
      • 6.7.8 Poisson’s ratio
      • 6.7.9 Factors affecting asphalt fatigue life
      • 6.7.10 Fatigue criteria
      • 6.7.11 Means of determining asphalt fatigue characteristics
      • 6.7.12 Permanent deformation of asphalt
    • 6.8 Concrete
      • 6.8.1 Introduction
      • 6.8.2 Subbase concrete
      • 6.8.3 Subbase concrete for flexible pavements
      • 6.8.4 Base concrete for rigid pavements
  • 7. Design Traffic
    • 7.1 General
    • 7.2 Role of traffic in pavement design
    • 7.3 Overview of procedure for determining design traffic
    • 7.4 Procedure for determining total heavy vehicle axle groups
      • 7.4.1 Introduction
      • 7.4.2 Selection of design period
      • 7.4.3 Identification of design lane
      • 7.4.4 Initial daily heavy vehicles in the design lane
      • 7.4.5 Cumulative number of heavy vehicles when below capacity
      • 7.4.6 Cumulative number of heavy vehicles considering capacity
      • 7.4.7 Cumulative heavy vehicle axle groups
      • 7.4.8 Increases in load magnitude
    • 7.5 Estimation of traffic load distribution (TLD)
    • 7.6 Design traffic for flexible pavements
      • 7.6.1 Damage to flexible pavements
      • 7.6.2 Pavement damage in terms of Equivalent Standard Axle repetitions
      • 7.6.3 Design traffic for mechanistic-empirical design procedure
    • 7.7 Design traffic for rigid pavements
    • 7.8 Example of design traffic calculations
  • 8. Design of Flexible Pavements
    • 8.1 General
    • 8.2 Mechanistic-empirical procedure
      • 8.2.1 Selection of trial pavement
      • 8.2.2 Procedure for elastic characterisation of selected or improved subgrade materials
      • 8.2.3 Procedure for elastic characterisation of granular material
      • 8.2.4 Procedure for elastic characterisation of lightly bound cemented materials
      • 8.2.5 Procedure for determining critical strains for asphalt, heavily bound cemented material and lean-mix concrete
      • 8.2.6 Procedure for determining allowable loading for asphalt, heavily bound cemented material and lean-mix concrete
      • 8.2.7 Consideration of post-cracking phase in heavily bound cemented material and lean-mix concrete
      • 8.2.8 Design of granular pavements with thin bituminous surfacings
    • 8.3 Empirical design of granular pavements with thin bituminous surfacing
      • 8.3.1 Determination of basic thickness
      • 8.3.2 Pavement composition
  • 9. Design of Rigid Pavements
    • 9.1 General
    • 9.2 Pavement types
      • 9.2.1 Base types
      • 9.2.2 Subbase types
      • 9.2.3 Wearing surface
    • 9.3 Factors used in thickness determination
      • 9.3.1 Strength of subgrade
      • 9.3.2 Effective subgrade strength
      • 9.3.3 Base concrete strength
      • 9.3.4 Design traffic
      • 9.3.5 Concrete shoulders
      • 9.3.6 Project reliability
    • 9.4 Base thickness design
      • 9.4.1 General
      • 9.4.2 Base thickness design procedure
      • 9.4.3 Minimum base thickness
      • 9.4.4 Example of the use of the design procedure
      • 9.4.5 Example design charts
      • 9.4.6 Provision of dowels
      • 9.4.7 Provision of tiebars
    • 9.5 Reinforcement design procedures
      • 9.5.1 General
      • 9.5.2 Reinforcement in plain concrete pavements
      • 9.5.3 Reinforcement in jointed reinforced pavements
      • 9.5.4 Reinforcement in continuously reinforced concrete pavements
    • 9.6 Base anchors
    • 9.7 Joint types and design
      • 9.7.1 Introduction
      • 9.7.2 Transverse contraction joints
      • 9.7.3 Transverse construction joints
      • 9.7.4 Expansion and isolation joints
      • 9.7.5 Longitudinal joints
      • 9.7.6 Joint design
  • 10. Economic Comparison of Designs
    • 10.1 General
    • 10.2 Method for economic comparison
    • 10.3 Construction costs
    • 10.4 Maintenance costs
    • 10.5 Salvage value
    • 10.6 Real discount rate
    • 10.7 Analysis period
    • 10.8 Road user costs
    • 10.9 Surfacing service lives
  • 11. Implementation of Design and Collection of Feedback
    • 11.1 Implementation of design
    • 11.2 Collection of feedback
      • 11.2.1 Need
      • 11.2.2 Benefits
      • 11.2.3 Current Australian LTPP program
      • 11.2.4 Data collection
  • 12. Design of Lightly Trafficked Pavements
    • 12.1 General
    • 12.2 Pavement design systems
      • 12.2.1 Selecting a trial pavement configuration
    • 12.3 Construction and maintenance considerations
      • 12.3.1 Extent and type of drainage
      • 12.3.2 Use of boxed construction
      • 12.3.3 Availability of equipment
      • 12.3.4 Use of staged construction
      • 12.3.5 Environmental and safety constraints
      • 12.3.6 Social considerations
      • 12.3.7 Maintenance strategy
    • 12.4 Environment
      • 12.4.1 General
      • 12.4.2 Moisture
      • 12.4.3 Temperature
    • 12.5 Subgrade evaluation
      • 12.5.1 Methods for estimating subgrade support value
    • 12.6 Pavement materials
      • 12.6.1 Unbound granular materials
      • 12.6.2 Cemented materials
      • 12.6.3 Asphalt
      • 12.6.4 Concrete
    • 12.7 Design traffic
      • 12.7.1 Procedure for determining total heavy vehicle axle groups
      • 12.7.2 Design traffic for flexible pavements
    • 12.8 Design of flexible pavements
      • 12.8.1 Mechanistic-empirical procedure
      • 12.8.2 Empirical design of granular pavements with thin bituminous surfacing
      • 12.8.3 Mechanistic-empirical procedure – example charts
    • 12.9 Design of rigid pavements
      • 12.9.1 General
      • 12.9.2 Pavement types
      • 12.9.3 Factors used in thickness determination
      • 12.9.4 Base thickness design
      • 12.9.5 Reinforcement design procedures
      • 12.9.6 Joints
    • 12.10 Implementation of design and collection of feedback
  • References
  • Appendix A Australasian Road Agency Pavement Design Manuals or Supplements
  • Appendix B Weighted Mean Annual Pavement Temperature
  • Appendix C Example Determination of Cumulative Number of Heavy Vehicles
    • C.1 Calculation of annual number of heavy vehicles
    • C.2 Calculation of maximum annual number of heavy vehicles
    • C.3 Adjusted annual number of heavy vehicles
    • C.4 Cumulative number of heavy vehicles
  • Appendix D Characteristics of Traffic at Selected WIM Sites
  • Appendix E Adjustment of Design Traffic for Anticipated Increases in Load Magnitude
  • Appendix F Traffic Load Distribution
  • Appendix G Pavement Damage in Terms of Equivalent Standard Axles
    • G.1 Evaluation of number of equivalent standard axle (ESA) repetitions per axle group
    • G.2 Specification of design traffic loading and its calculation
  • Appendix H Example of Design Traffic Calculations Design parameters
    • H.1 Total number of heavy vehicle axle groups
    • H.2 Design traffic for flexible pavements
      • H.2.1 Estimating equivalent standard axles per heavy vehicle axle group
      • H.2.2 Design traffic loading calculation in ESA
      • H.2.3 Design traffic loading calculation for bound materials
    • H.3 Design traffic for rigid pavements
  • Appendix I Procedures for Evaluation of Pavement Damage Due to Specialised Vehicles
    • I.1 Introduction
    • I.2 Granular pavements with thin bituminous surfacings
    • I.3 Flexible pavements which include bound materials
    • I.4 Rigid pavements
  • Attachment – Example of the Use of Evaluation Procedures for Specialised Vehicles
  • Appendix J Effect of Asphalt Thickness on Fatigue Life of Asphalt-Surfaced Pavements
  • Appendix K Examples of Use of the Mechanistic-Empirical Procedure for Flexible Pavements
    • K.1 Sprayed seal surfaced unbound granular pavement
    • K.2 Full depth asphalt pavement
    • K.3 Asphalt pavement containing heavily bound cemented material subbase
    • K.4 Sprayed seal surfaced lightly bound cemented material base pavement
  • Appendix L Examples of Use of the Empirical Design Charts for Granular Pavements with Thin Bituminous Surfacings
    • L.1 Example 1: Utilising unbound granular materials
    • L.2 Example 2: Utilising crushed rocks and selected or improved subgrade materials
    • L.3 Example 3: Utilising crushed rocks and lime-stabilised subgrade material
  • Appendix M Examples of Use of the Design Procedure for Rigid Pavements
  • Appendix N Traffic Load Distributions for Lightly Trafficked Roads
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