Tunnels
- Publication no: AP-R668-22
- ISBN: 978-1-922700-31-5
- Published: 17 February 2022
- PDF (free) Download
This report evaluates selected low-cost perceptual countermeasure (PCM) treatments in tunnel environments. PCM treatments are used to reduce crash risk by improving driver speed behaviour, alertness and lane discipline within tunnels.
Two key research activities were undertaken in the project:
- a systematic literature review and stakeholder consultation
- an experimental study conducted in a virtual reality driving simulator.
Based on the outputs of the literature review and stakeholder consultations, three PCM treatments were selected for evaluation in the virtual reality driving simulator: striped wall pattern; rumble strips (edgeline and centreline); and pacemaker lighting.
In the simulated tunnel environment, the three PCM treatments evaluated had little or no positive effect in either maintaining drivers’ speed or lane position. Nevertheless, in subjective feedback from study, participants indicated that none of the PCMs compromised their safety, and that the tunnels treated with PCMs were perceived to be significantly more appealing than untreated tunnels. Further research is needed to determine the impact of the virtual environment on the study outcomes.
Watch a webinar about the study with Professor Michael Regan, Julius Secadiningrat, Dr. Prasannah Prabhakharan, and Mitchell Cunningham.
Summary
1. Introduction
- 1.1 Background
- 1.2 Project Purpose
- 1.3 Project Objectives
- 1.4 Research Activities
- 1.5 Structure of this Report
2. Research Activity 1: Literature Review and Stakeholder Consultation
- 2.1 Aims and Research Questions
- 2.2 Method
- 2.2.1 Method for Literature Review
- 2.2.2 Method for Stakeholder Consultation
- 2.3 Summary of Key Findings
- 2.3.1 Results of Literature Review and Stakeholder Consultation
- 2.3.2 Candidate PCM Treatment Options for Research Activity 2
- 2.3.3 Speed
- 2.3.4 Lane Position
- 2.3.5 Recommended PCM Treatments for Research Activity 2.
3. Research Activity 2: Experimental Study
- 3.1 Aims and Research Questions
- 3.2 Method
- 3.2.1 Participants
- 3.3 Design
- 3.4 Material & Apparatus
- 3.4.1 Hardware
- 3.4.2 Software
- 3.4.3 Questionnaires
- 3.4.4 Procedure
- 3.5 Results
- 3.5.1 Participant Demographics
- 3.5.2 Analysis of Drive Data
- 3.5.3 Methods of Analysis
- 3.5.4 PCM Impact on Drivers’ Speed
- 3.5.5 PCM Impact on Drivers’ Lateral Control
- 3.6 Other PCM Benefits Identified
- 3.6.1 Self-Reported Driving Performance
- 3.6.2 Self-Reported Perceptions
- 3.6.3 Self-Reported Driver States
- 3.6.4 Self-Reported Thoughts on Intended Purpose
- 3.6.5 Self-Reported Changes in Driving Behaviour
- 3.7 Summary of Findings from Research Activity 2
4. Discussion and Conclusion
- 4.1 Key Findings of Research Activity 1: Literature Review and Stakeholder Consultation
- 4.2 Key Findings of Research Activity 2: Experimental Study
- 4.2.1 Does the application of perceptual countermeasure (PCM) treatments have any impact on drivers’ speed in road tunnels?
- 4.2.2 Does the application of perceptual countermeasure (PCM) treatments have any impact on drivers’ lateral control in road tunnels?
- 4.2.3 What are drivers’ opinions of the proposed PCM treatments?
- 4.3 Impact of the Striped Wall Pattern
- 4.4 Impact of the Pacemaker Lighting
- 4.5 Impact of the Rumble Strips
- 4.6 Study Limitations
- 4.7 Future Research
- 4.8 Recommendation for a Follow-Up Study
- 4.8.1 Condition 1
- 4.8.2 Condition 2
- 4.9 Conclusion
References
Appendix A Painted Road Markings
- A.1 Definition
- A.2 Speed
- A.2.1 Transverse lines
- A.2.2 Peripheral transverse lines
- A.2.3 Herringbone peripheral transverse lines (forward and backwards)
- A.2.4 Half Wundt transverse lines
- A.2.5 Optical speed bars
- A.2.6 Optical circles
- A.2.7 Perceptual lane narrowing
- A.2.8 Peripheral hatching
- A.2.9 Chequered edge lines
- A.2.10 Inside lane hatching
- A.2.11 Centreline widening – hatching
- A.2.12 Centreline widening – white gravel
- A.2.13 Combs
- A.2.14 Dragons teeth
- A.3 Lane Position
- A.3.1 Transverse lines
- A.3.2 Peripheral transverse lines
- A.3.3 Herringbone peripheral transverse lines (forward and backwards)
- A.3.4 Half Wundt transverse lines
- A.3.5 Optical speed bars
- A.3.6 Optical circles
- A.3.7 Perceptual lane narrowing
- A.3.8 Peripheral hatching
- A.3.9 Chequered edge lines
- A.3.10 Inside lane hatching
- A.3.11 Centreline widening – hatching
- A.3.12 Centreline widening – white gravel
- A.3.13 Combs
- A.3.14 Dragons teeth
- A.4 Miscellaneous Driving Behaviours
- A.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
- A.5.1 Efficacy
- A.5.2 Ease of Implementation
- A.5.3 Cost of Implementation
- A.5.4 Maintenance
- A.5.5 Applicability to Tunnel Environments
- A.5.6 Other Comments from Stakeholders
Appendix B Wall Markings
- B.1 Definition
- B.2 Speed
- B.2.1 Tunnel art
- B.2.2 Sidewall colour
- B.2.3 Sidewall arrow markings by different colour
- B.2.4 Sidewall arrow markings by different temporal frequencies
- B.2.5 Sidewall striped patterns
- B.2.6 Sidewall texture
- B.3 Lane Position
- B.3.1 Tunnel art
- B.3.2 Sidewall colour
- B.3.3 Sidewall arrow markings by different colour
- B.3.4 Sidewall arrow markings by different temporal frequencies
- B.3.5 Sidewall striped patterns
- B.3.6 Sidewall texture
- B.4 Miscellaneous Driving Behaviours
- B.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
- B.5.1 Efficacy
- B.5.2 Ease of Implementation
- B.5.3 Cost of Implementation
- B.5.4 Maintenance
- B.5.5 Applicability to Tunnel Environments
- B.5.6 Other Comments from Stakeholders
Appendix C Rumble Strips
C.1 Definition
- C.2 Speed
- C.2.1 Edgeline Profile Lane Marking (audio-visual lane-marking)
- C.2.2 Centreline Rumble Strips
- C.2.3 Transverse Rumble Strips
- C.3 Lane Position
- C.3.1 Edgeline Profile Lane Marking (audio-visual lane-marking)
- C.3.2 Centreline Rumble Strips
- C.3.3 Transverse Rumble Strips
- C.4 Miscellaneous Driving Behaviours
- C.4.1 Crashes
- C.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
- C.5.1 Efficacy
- C.5.2 Ease of Implementation
- C.5.3 Cost of Implementation
- C.5.4 Maintenance
- C.5.5 Applicability to Tunnel Environments
- C.5.6 Other Comments from Stakeholders
Appendix D Delineation Markers
- D.1 Definition
- D.2 Speed
- D.2.1 Guideposts with ascending heights
- D.2.2 Hazard marker posts
- D.2.3 Post delineators
- D.2.4 Chevrons
- D.3 Lane Position
- D.3.1 Guideposts with ascending heights
- D.3.2 Hazard marker posts
- D.3.3 Post delineators
- D.3.4 Chevrons
- D.4 Miscellaneous Driving Behaviours
- D.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
- D.5.1 Efficacy
- D.5.2 Ease of Implementation
- D.5.3 Cost of Implementation
- D.5.4 Maintenance
- D.5.5 Applicability to Tunnel Environments
- D.5.6 Other Comments from Stakeholders
Appendix E Lighting
- E.1 Definition
- E.2 Speed
- E.2.1 LED lighting
- E.2.2 Luminance
- E.3 Lane Position
- E.3.1 LED lighting
- E.3.2 Luminance
- E.4 Miscellaneous Driving Behaviours
- E.4.1 Crashes
- E.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
- E.5.1 Efficacy
- E.5.2 Ease of Implementation
- E.5.3 Cost of Implementation
- E.5.4 Maintenance
- E.5.5 Applicability to Tunnel Environments
- E.5.6 Other Comments from Stakeholders
Appendix F Physical Markers
- F.1 Definition
- F.2 Speed
- F.2.1 Sealed Shoulder
- F.2.2 Build outs
- F.2.3 Traffic Cones
- F.3 Lane Position
- F.3.1 Sealed Shoulder
- F.3.2 Build outs
- F.3.3 Traffic Cones
- F.4 Miscellaneous Driving Behaviours
- F.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
- F.5.1 Efficacy
- F.5.2 Ease of Implementation
- F.5.3 Cost of Implementation
- F.5.4 Maintenance
- F.5.5 Applicability to Tunnel Environments
- F.5.6 Other Comments from Stakeholders
Appendix G Combined Treatments
- G.1 Definition
- G.2 Speed
- G.2.1 Rumble strips plus peripheral transverse bars
- G.2.2 Rumble strips plus dragons teeth
- G.2.3 Rumble strips plus coloured intersection
- G.2.4 Rumble strips plus painted median
- G.2.5 Rumble strips plus raised median
- G.2.6 Drenthe province treatment
- G.2.7 Combs plus chevrons
- G.3 Lane Position
- G.3.1 Rumble strips plus peripheral transverse bars
- G.3.2 Rumble strips plus dragons teeth
- G.3.3 Rumble strips plus coloured intersection
- G.3.4 Rumble strips plus painted median
- G.3.5 Rumble strips plus raised median
- G.3.6 Drenthe province treatment
- G.3.7 Combs plus chevrons
- G.4 Miscellaneous Driving Behaviours
- G.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
- G.5.1 Efficacy
- G.5.2 Ease of Implementation
- G.5.3 Cost of Implementation
- G.5.4 Maintenance
- G.5.5 Applicability to Tunnel Environments
- G.5.6 Other Comments from Stakeholders
Appendix H Simulator Sickness Questionnaire
Appendix I Drive Questionnaire
Appendix J Post Experiment Questionnaire
Appendix K Self-Reported Thoughts on Intended Purpose
Appendix L Self-Reported Changes in Driving Behaviour